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HISTORY
Roman Britain
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Britannica would be conquered by Emperor Claudius and become part of the Roman Empire for almost four decades.
By Will Street
Jul. 25, 2019, 11:30 AM
Introduction
A rugged wilderness spread across rolling hills, valleys and mountains. Either forests, or moors of fauna and heather, filled this dilapidated wasteland. Grasslands and tall coniferous trees pervaded the baron landscape. It was empty of life other than the tweeting of owls, murmurs of insects and beasts like wild deer roaming freely across the land.
To imagine the sparsity of this place was to imagine the silence of all mankind across most of its frontiers. The grass would grow thick. The grass would grow thick and then remain like any empty wasteland, beneficial only to only a wandering bumblebee or absent mammals in a timeless inertia. The sun would rise and fall. The sun would rise and fall but only to salute the tragic vacuum this echelon of the globe sadly possessed.
It was a place where a minute crop of lavender was the most interesting event. It was a place where the felling of a tree was met by ten million others elsewhere across the land. Few cared about these lands. Few cared about them because there was no one there to care in the first place. The green and empty landscape was all that was present. The wood was the only thing there to cackle against their misfortune.
Civilized life comes solely at the hands of humans. They are not bound or broken alike their simian ancestors. They are not bereft of language nor the vocal tongue. A primitive Homo Recti can construct at least a primitive wooden house. A Homo Sapiens can stretch even further, cementing their place in history with their ability to construct wooden hamlets.
These were a hardy folk. They were a kind who knew the terrain well, were best suited to both the climate and the geography. Their grey, silvery colour of hair spread across the islands as nightly and sunny adaptations took their toll. They were the famous "Britons", and a collection of people that had formed into communities (such as the Trinovantes and Iceni) over thousands of years. However, in the first century AD, they were destined to face a whole new monster. This was the invasion of the Romans, beginning with Julius Caesar, but developing into a seemingly permanent affair with Emperor Claudius in the 1st Century AD. Utter turmoil would be implanted across the Britons' lives. It was a time when Lord Nelson hadn't been born and our great ancestors were simple pickings for the Romans. So, read on as I explore the nature of Britannica during the first few centuries of the common era, a time when large parts of what is the United Kingdom today were occupied by the Roman Empire.
Britain Before The Romans
The Roman historian, Diodorus Siculus, in 30 BC described the land of Britannica pleasantly. He wrote, "The inhabitants of Britain... are especially friendly to strangers and have adopted a civilized way of life because of their interaction with traders and other people. It is they who work the tin into pieces the size of knucklebones and convey it to an island off Britain, called Ictis... [where] merchants buy the tin from the natives..." (Diodorus Siculus "Library" V,22, c.30 BC) This early assessment stems from early scouts and tradespeople and suggests that Britannica was something that Rome looked upon amicably prior to any military engagement.
Assessing Britannica from a non-Roman point of view, the migration of early settlers (thousands of years later than initial anthropological diasporas) was most probably because of attractions such as minerals, the general fertility of the land and abundance of wildlife to eat. There are accounts of Ancient Greek travellers stumbling across the lands during far-flung expeditions. For instance, a man called Pytheas (who was a Greek explorer from Massalia [Marseilles]) set off on a trip in 310 BC that led him through the waterways of Gaul and subsequently across the English Channel before he arrived in Cornwall. At that point, it was said, he decided to circumnavigate the British Isles. However, no colonisation took place, and until the Roman invasion by Julius Caesar, Britannica remained largely untouched and inhabited predominately by pre-historic migrants.
During the Bronze Age (c.2,500 - 800 BC) and the Iron Age (c. 800 BC - 43 AD), what these Britons were most commonly capable of and occupied with was a life of subsistence farming. This entailed growing arable crops and the raising of livestock. There were also dietary supplements available including things such as wild fruit. Owing to the necessity of trade, ancient British communities would travel and convene with other tribes. Commodities such as timber, salt and suitable stones were high up the ladder in necessity. The development of communities would preclude isolationism.
Therefore, a reckoning of development did follow onwards profusely. Engagement with foreign tribes brought each tribe to subsequently assess their own identity. They assessed their identity in a way that resulted in each tribe distinguishing precisely their style of dress and behaviour. Equally, however, extensive commune between tribes developed into some quintessential British characteristics. Most prominently amongst these was the "roundhouse", which was the central model for a domestic dwelling. Rome, on the other hand, which was to come its foe, brandished and could attest tens of cities more developed and grand with tall stone edifices.
Indeed, Britain came into the remit of Rome as a land rich with minerals. The Greek geographer, Strabo, writing during the reign of Emperor Augustus, attests the diversity and wealth of British produce. He lists the export of grain, cattle, gold, silver and iron, accompanied, he wrote, by "hides and slaves, and dogs that are by nature suited to the chase." (Strabo, "Geography", IV. 5,2) Assessing a Roman occupation of these lands, the first stop starts with Julius Caesar, during the Roman Republic. He had been waging war in Gaul (France) at the behest of the Roman Senate. Fairing well in Gaul, he decided to send an expeditionary force to Britannica, in an attempt, we can presume, to seize yet further such military spoils. It is, in fact, Plutarch, along with Julius Caesar himself, that both recount Julius Caesar's actions in the 1st Century BC. According to both of them, Julius Ceasar led a 8-year campaign in Gaul. It was a 8-year campaign, however, which Plutarch stresses was terrifying with brutality (According to literary sources, Caesar captured and looted more than 800 settlements and killed or enslaved a large proportion of the native Gallic population.)
The two authors go on to describe the expedition to Britannica afterwards. In 55 BC, Caesar's first attempt to capture the island began. Yet it would develop into an abject failure as much of his fleet was wrecked by storms. How did this sea-fairing expedition turn out? Well, the next assault on the British lands would come the following summer, which suggests there was a maintained desire to annex these lands. Referring to the writings of Caesar to discover a motive, he rather pragmatically states that the Gauls had "received reinforcements from the Britons" (The Gallic War, IV, 20). His writings suggest that Caesar was taking a tactical decision, whilst primally engaged with the land of Gaul. The eventual journey to Britannica may have also imbedded in further reasons of "efficiency". For instance, it was known that Britain was rich in minerals. On a more menacing side, such a conquest could provide the General with a wealth of spoils of war, ranging from tributes and slaves.
What is known for certain is that Caesar's second attempt was a far greater expeditionary force. He took a momentous army of 800 ships, which carried roughly 25,000 foot soldiers and 2,000 cavalry. In effect, it was an army that was never defeated. It was an army that was never defeated because it was only instability in Gaul that caused Caesar to abandon this second campaign in Britain.
However, before we awaken ourselves at the occasion of Emperor Claudius' later commanding assault, let us lay down precisely the contemporary picture of what Britain was like. Caesar, himself, provides certain illusory observations during his time fighting overseas. He wrote, "All the Britons, indeed, dye themselves with woad, which produces a blue colour, and make their appearance in battle more terrible" ("The Gallic War" V. 14). Caesar also mentions the Britons' proficiency with chariots, at one point stating that the Britons could turn and stop their horses in an instant irrespective of speed or how steep a decline they faced. In fact, it does appear from archaeological evidence that the horse-drawn chariot was very important to Iron-Age society. For instance, chariot burials dated to the 3rd Century BC have been found in areas such as East Yorkshire, precisely the forestland at Wetwang. We, of course, all remember the rebellions of Boudica, who was famous for her horse-drawn chariot.
In the ensuing ecology after Caesar's exerts, in some places there is a developing synergy between Roman and native. In Britain prior to Caesar, material culture had exploded during the late Iron Age (c.300BC - AD43). In the style of British settlements, most importantly was the emergence of the hillfort. Predominately arising amongst southern Britain, these edifices posed an awe-inspiring structure of earth ramparts encircling a high point in the landscape. From 600 to 400BC, during the period of their genesis, they continued to etch a distinctive mark across tribal territories. Wealth and treasures from these tribes were not lacking. The "Great Tor" is an example of this. It was found in Snettisham near the Norfolk coast and is one of the most elaborate golden objects from the entire ancient world. It illustrates what was probably the pinnacle of Iron-Age craftmanship and provides evidence over how the Britons conducted their lives. It is suggestive of the worship of "otherworldly" powers and magical rites. This is, in fact, corroborated by Strabo. He describes the role of the Druids as to be responsible for acting as priests in religious ceremonies and as judges in criminal cases. Regarding the jewelry itself, he wrote, "They [the Druids] not only wear gold ornaments - both chains round their and bracelets round their arms and wrists (Strabo, "Geography" IV, 4, 5).
So when Caesar does invade and we assess the damage on the tribal kingdoms, a plethora of evidence can be gathered to discern the implication of this General on Britannica. Firstly, according to Caesar himself, he maintained that he had still possessed influence over Britannica, even while retreating to France. In "The Gallic War" he wrote, "deputies came to him [Caesar] from several states in the island with promises to give hostages and to accept the empire of Rome ("The Gallic War, IV, 33). Archaeologically, there is evidence of a Romanization of Britannica prior to the invasion of Claudius. At Heybridge in Essex, a quintessential Iron-Age settlement has been discovered. It is notably more important as well for it includes one of the largest assemblage of wine amphorae north of the Thames and in the 1st Century BC. What this therefore suggests is that Heybridge could probably have been a major port for the transfer of goods to the continent. Connecting this with the abundance discovered of magnificent gold jewellery in different locations within Britain, it certifies that trade was taking place and, therefore, it can be surmised that the Britons were readily aware of Rome in the period after Julius Caesar's invasion.
The Roman Conquest
As with the case of warfare, the invasion of Britannica began with a crash, bang and wallop. The fury of vibrant blue Britons addressed the Romans in a climatic battle. The North Star only rose to see the bloodshed and savagery. They tore and wrenched each other's heart out until at last they found this one result. Cassius Dio, himself, is nervous at the beginnings of the operation. He wrote, "So it was that Plautius undertook the expedition, though he had difficulty in getting his army to leave Gaul, since the troops were indignant at the prospect of campaigning outside the known world... (Cassius Dio, "Roman History" LX, 19, ca. 220 AD). As Cassius Dio makes clear, it was Plautius who led the assault. He led the assault as commander-in-chief for the Emperor. The retinue of forces was enormous. Plautius took four legions and numerous auxiliary units, totalling roughly 30-40 thousand men in entirety. How were the Britons going to survive? How could their refute a blistering maelstrom that seemed light years apart.
Now the Romans were upon their shores. Now they were admonished with a disciplined army that knew seldom forces that could block their trophies. Indeed, at its core, the expeditionary force was designed for one particular thing. It was designed to crush resistance, seize mineral and human resources and provide Claudius with a swift military triumph. Fate, therefore was not looking favourably towards the Britons. After a peaceful arrival for Plautius and his troops in Kent, the fates would soon spark a different pathway. Indeed, the Romans were soon met with British resistance. This was led by Caratacus and Togodumnus who were both sons of the tribal leader, Cunobelin.
Battles would ensue most substantially at two river crossings. These are predominantly thought to be the Thames and the Medway. What happened was the Roman specialist units - auxiliaries who could swim even in full kit - were so successful that it was almost impossible for the Britons to win. Indeed, the British were defeated and Caratacus fled westwards to a place where he attempted to maintain the struggle.
As is the nature of a totalitarian, repressive regime, news of the conquest was fed swiftly back to the Emperor Claudius. Claudius would even cherish this Roman victory by travelling to Britannica himself. There, he would arrive with an entourage of elephants and was set to personally lead his armies in the capture of a British stronghold called Catuvellaunia (near Colchester) and accept the submission of the eleven British "kings". Success seemed guaranteed, and Claudius only remained in Britain for 16 days.
Naturally, Plautius was instructed to continue his conquest of the entire remaining island. Claudius, on the other hand, returned to Rome to laud his military success. We can observe this immediately on numismatic evidence. One gold coin, for instance, shows Claudius' monumental arch in Rome depicting the emperor boldly on horseback. The date was 44AD and Claudius celebrated his triumph, adorning specifically the arch with an inscription stating that he [Claudius] was "the first to bring barbarian nations beyond the Ocean under Roman sway."
Yet what Plautius and later Generals were to discover would be quite the opposite. He had been instructed to continue northwards and westwards bringing further lands under Roman dominion. Yet he met fierce opposition from these savage beings. Plautius left Legion XX in the Colchester region for stability. He then opted to divide his army into 3 battle groups. These were named Legions II Augusta, XIV Gemina and IX Hispana. Simultaneously, they advanced south-west, west and north-east respectively. In their nature, each army was comprised of both legionary and auxiliary soldiers, the auxiliary being included predominantly because of their knowledge of British terrain. Legion II Augusta was famously led by the future emperor, Vespasian.
Archaeological evidence elucidates some of the conquests they achieved. For instance, a hill-fort in Dorset, known as Hod Hill, was discovered through a set of excavations from 1951 to 1958. This, crucially, revealed that a Roman fort, that had been built on top of the site, had first been appropriated from the Britons and had then been used as a garrison for troops. During this early period of strife, archaeological excavations have further shown that a complex network of forts and roads existed prior to British submission.
By 47AD much of the land had been conquered. The Romans' dominion stretched northwards to Lincoln and southwards to Exeter. It stretched further than an empty beer bottle could be thrown. It was an isolated annexed region of the Romans and no longer some exotic land. Yet considering even at this point many lands rich with minerals lay outside of Roman rule, it was down to Plautius' successor, Ostorous Scapula to continue the campaigning. What this entailed was many forts and roads being built, a construction of an interconnected web, if you will, to best control the lands. In 51AD a big battle ensued between the Romans and Welsh tribes, who had benefited from the brief lull in activity and had developed menacing gorilla tactics by this point. In 51AD the British were defeated in central Wales and the British leader, Caratacus fled northwards to the lands of Cartimandua, who was queen of the Brigantes.
Scapula died in 52AD, and what became apparent was that some hefty intervention was going to be required to seize Britannica in its entirety. In fact, it would be thirty years after the initial invasion of Claudius before the Welsh tribes and the Brigantes were finally conquered.
How was control of this land maintained and exerted? Naturally, as a Roman province, there was a governor. The troubles he faced were illustrated during the reign of Nero in 60AD. The governor, who had began his post two years earlier in 58AD, initially quelled mainland Welsh resistance. He then, however, sought to take this a step further and invade the island of Anglesey. Yet whilst almost on the point of victory, another serious rebellion erupted further southwards in the heart of his province. Precisely, Prasutagus - king of the Iceni and once a Roman ally - had passed away. Under the eyes of the Romans, this no longer meant that a treaty they had struck was valid. The result of this was that the Iceni could no longer consider themselves as a independent kingdom, an independent kingdom within the empire.
Tacitus describes some of the shock-horrors that ensued. He wrote, "Kingdom and household alike were plundered like prizes of war... As a beginning, his widow Boudica was flogged and their daughters raped. The Icenian chiefs were deprived of their hereditary estates as if the Romans had been given the whole country. The King's own relatives were treated like slaves" (Tacitus "Annals", XIV, 31, ca. 120AD). As a result, serious rebellions naturally followed. The Trinovantes, who themselves felt aggrieved, even joined forces with the Iceni. It was now something that was going to cause the Romans serious problems. The rebellion marched southwards wreaking destruction. They burned the Roman people of Colchester to death. Other towns such as St. Albans were sacked and burned. They caused the Romans to leave London to its death and shove all might towards the Midlands.
There, in an unknown locating somewhere in the Midlands, the roman governor, Suetonius Paullinus, succeeded in forcing the Britons into battle. Comprised of an army of no more that 10,000 men, they were heavily outnumbered. Yet this was a Roman army - an army that could conquer land or sea. The Britons suffered heavy losses and were eventually defeated. The famous Boudica committed suicide.
Under the Emperor Nero, defences were solidified after the rebellion. Similarly, efforts were made to pacify the Britons and entitle them to prosperity. This resulted in settlements, towns and country homes enjoying in the luxuries the Roman Empire brought. We see this immediately in the archaeological evidence of London and, the city walls of Canterbury or more evidently and pleasantly the Bath House at Bath.
The pacification of Britannica by the Romans is lucidly relayed by Nero's decision in 67AD to remove Legion XIV from the country. Where war continued in the north, it appeared bloody and troublesome compared to the relaxation amongst the south. It is precisely under this environment that Hadrian's wall was built in 122AD. The north couldn't be beaten, it couldn't be conquered and both Romans and their British subjects rather sought to enjoy a better life below Hadrian's wall.
Life Under The Romans
Enjoying the life as Roman subjects, the people of Britannica experienced the quintessential customs of the Roman Empire. Yet they also faced nuances depending on their lives and geography. The fate of each living Britain would depend crucially upon their location within the country. This determined the presence of the Roman military, which, it has been discovered, left a profound impact on the region. It is the impact of the Roman military, principally, that caused changes. This ranged from entities such as taxation, Roman law or the use of Latin or, alternatively, a continuation of native customs, such as farming methods, land tenure, religious practices or art styles. The army presence was obviously enormous. It also spanned most parts of the province, whether it be countryside forts or town garrisons. But above all else, it was the military that had the spending power to galvanise trade, building and technology across Britannica.
Archaeological evidence attests military training barracks across a plethora of ancient sites. These include fortresses at Caerleon, Chester, Maryport, South Shields and Hardknott. Here, evidence has been found of parade grounds, practice camps and even amphitheatres. Not exclusive to combat, the legions would equally be employed for the purpose of construction. This entailed most commonly work on large-scale building projects. The structure of the army allowed precisely for this, for it was rife with architects, engineers, land-surveyors, masons, carpenters and blacksmiths - all various specialists that amounted to a technical work-force. And it was a technical work-force within Britain. The number of soldiers needed to subdue the region effected a boom economy, a boom economy around the Romans' forts.
In its ecology, the impetus began through the legionaries. They constructed massive fortresses, the "coloniae" of retired legionaries, frontiers, roads and communications infrastructure. Requiring a greater workforce, this economy was transferred away from the Roman Legions to include auxiliary (British in ethnicity) manpower. Collaboration then ensues with parts of the civilian population. This is abounded in economic areas such as army provisions, but crucially also civic building projects and regional administration. Some of the most impressive of the Roman remains, such as the baths or forum-basilica complexes at location such as London, St. Albans or Bath infer a decisive army influence in their creation. Assessing army provisions through archaeological evidence, the mining of metals seems to have been controlled by the military. At Dolaucothi, near Pumpsaint, Dyfed in Wales, evidence has illustrated the former presence of a military unit held in garrison within a fort. This fort is immediately adjacent to a former site used for the mining of gold. Similarly, evidence has been found, equally, demonstrating the proximity of a military (the "British Fleet") garrison to a site involved in the production of iron in the weald of Kent.
And it is, from this basis, that a "Romanifcation" of Britannica develops. Tacitus even wrote, "[Agricola] began to train the sons of the chieftains in a liberal education... As a result, the nation which used to reject the Latin Language began to aspire to rhetoric. Further,... the toga came into fashion,... the promenade, the bath, the well-appointed dinner table" (Tacitus "Agricola", XXI, 2, 98AD). It is very difficult to establish what percentage of the British population spoke the Latin language. What we do know is that it was the official language of Roman society and included facets such as law, administration and business. Despite this, the whole of the Roman Empire was largely cosmopolitan in languages, a feature that infiltrated the barracks of the army or the simple forum conversations. This included with no exception the land of Britannica as well.
Immediately this feature can be observed in archaeological evidence patently. An altar in Cumbria has been discovered dedicated by a Mauretanian, a tombstone from South Shields constructed by a Syrian, a religious vow in Colchester attributed to a Caledonian individual and also evidence has been discovered of correspondence between two figures written in Ancient Greek in the Vindolanda Tablets. A synergy of culture can also be observed. This is exemplified most emphatically by appreciation of Virgil's "Aeneid" expressed through murals and mosaics. At a villa discovered in Otford, Kent, a decorated frieze has been revealed depicting a scene from the "Aeneid". At the Lullingstone villa, secondly, a famous scene from the "Aeneid" is captured in art - in this case an image of Jupiter abducting Europa.
Religion and sacred rites across Roman Britain were also a murky phenomena and rich with nuance and synergy. Magical texts of protective amulets have been discovered, most successfully located through inscriptions on lead sheets or gold leaf. Greek and Latin texts were combined with magical symbols and invocations to the gods. The amulets, themselves, were believed to protect the wearer from evil. Precisely the protection invocated can be generic or to counter a specific harm.
Much of Roman Britannica's religion was based on superstition. In its essence, almost the entirety of Britannica's population believed that there were many gods inhabiting the earth, air, sky and water both in the world of the living and the dead. The common aim of temples and general worship were invocate these gods in whatever way they could do. This basis on superstition probably derives from the humans' fascination and bewilderment concerning the natural world. Natural destruction such as floods, thunder and lightning, winds and droughts came to be attributed to the gods. Who else was there to blame? Looking up into the sky, all they saw was unfathomable... unfathomable to a society with almost minimal scientific knowledge.
Staring at a strike of lightning flash against a single point today, the ancient population's assessment doesn't seem that perturbing. In fact, it was commonly believed that when a bolt of lightning hit whatever, it was a result of the divine judgement of Jupiter. Earlier Iron Age communities also had a similar belief. Celtic emissaries to the court of Alexander the Great in 335BC were said to have relayed that the greatest thing they feared was the sky falling on their heads. Weather features do have an enormous impact on Iron Age communities' livelihoods, almost punishable in some cases. A frost here and there, a blazing fire, a destructive famine were all things that the natives blamed on the gods.
However, the amalgamation of specific religious rites within Roman Britain are characteristic of this synergy between Rome and the natives. Childbirth and infant mortality lead to the veneration of female protectors such as Minerva. She, for instance, was at the centre of the baths at Aqua Sulis. Combined with Apollo, they and both their native counterparts were beseeched and worshipped for assistance. The barrier lines between native and Roman gods was invisible.
The character of Roman Britannica is best analyzed against its most prolific contradictor. In fact, it was a phenomenon that spread across the whole of the Roman Empire. This was the "Cult of the Deified Emperor". Nothing else was such a vehicle for proclaiming the emperor and suppressing any dissident voices. At its crux it was a poignant symbol of the Roman occupation. In its substance, it was an enforcement policy spread by the imperial government that after death emperors became gods and temples should therefore be duly constructed in their honour. It is clear that the cult was a symbol of empire, for the temple to Claudius at Colchester was exceptionally targeted during the Boudican rebellion. It was also reported, during Hadrian's era, that the head of a statue was hacked off in London and thrown in the Thames. We can, also, compare British customs with the Romans and observe the dissidence. For one, the Druid practice of human sacrifice would have been abhorrent to any Roman citizen (albeit a claim made about the Druids from Roman writers).
However, the question remains over how far these differences illustrate isolation between Briton and Roman. In their deities, particularly earth-dwelling creatures, Roman and Briton were very similar. This is exemplified in archaeological discoveries. A set of figurines from Southbroom in Wiltshire have been found, which portray Roman gods like Mercury in a distinctive "native" style. Similarly, in Felmingham in Norfolk, an object representing Jupiter (the Roman sky god) was discovered together with symbols of local beliefs, for instance a wheel that is though to likely represent Taranis, who was the Celtic god of change.
When we turn to the practice of religion and its performance, the barrier lines between Briton and Roman are decisively eliminated. Amulets, designed to protect the wearer in both Roman and British traditions, came to be created in the form of golden snake rings. A large number of these rings have been found that date to the 1st and 2nd Centuries AD. So many have been found that the jewellery posits evidence for a synergy between Roman and Briton. Equally, in religious belief the joint Romano-British symbol of the snake was also important as it was associated (before Christianity) with renewal and healing... with renewal and healing in both religious rites. This was because of its ability to shed its skin.
Bath, in Somerset, bears a testament of Britannica's religion that is still visible today. This was the spectacular spring at Aqua Sulis, and where a place existed that conflated British and Roman deities. At its outset, Bath's spring water was perceived as a wondrous gift to heal and nature the venturer. Naturally, temples surrounding the complex built up and it became a sacred site. A native deity was chosen - one called "Sulis". Yet immediately the conflation is apparent, since the goddess was equally known by another name. This was the famous Roman Minerva. Both Romans and Britons could venture to the baths where ones stood and so-to-speak take care of themselves. They could bath in the warm water and look up at the murals above. This was no longer barbarianism, but the height of civilization and with it the height of sophistication.
Yet many have argued, particularly in the 20th and 19th Centuries, that Britannica was an impoverished region of the Roman Empire. Plaintiffs point towards its isolation and chilly climate. They point to its distance from Rome and savage natives. However what that argument ignores is the plethora of mineral deposits and developing manufacturing economy of Britannica, an economy that created things from iron to glass. These hardy folk, known as the British, knew how to create glass, they knew how to work stone into beautiful statues, they even knew how to produce leather.
Turning to that eternal sustenance, remaining sources give us an insight into what the Ancient Britons and Romans were eating under the Roman occupation. Wheat was at the centre of their diet and was milled into flour. The harvest was reaped by hand using a curved iron sickle or a reaping hook. Vegetables and fruits were also grown and harvested. Carnivorous as ever, the Romano-British liked beef, mutton and pork as their stable meats.
However, what must be stressed and stressed finally is that Roman Britannica's population was mostly rural. In total across all of Roman Britain, it is thought that there was roughly between 2.5 to 3.5 million people. Counting the numbers of those living in urban centres, be it towns or garrison settlements, the population figure is a quarter of a million (1/10 of the entire populace). In a form of "manor house" setup, grand Roman villas were built across the country in proximity to farms. Remaining ruins attest this, such as in Lullingstone (Kent) and Meonstoke (Hampshire).
Conclusion
The Romans' control over Britannica lasted until close to the fall of Rome across Western Europe. The ancient author, Zosimus, writing in the 5th Century AD, depicted the events lucidly. He wrote, "... the barbarians from across the Rhine attacked everywhere with all their strength... the inhabitants of Britain were obliged to throw off Roman rule and lived independently, no longer subject to Roman laws" (Zosimus "New History", VI, 5, 2-3, c. late 5th Century AD). Indeed, it was the collapse of the western empire that brought an end to Rome's dominion and not home-grown British talent. The date was approximately 410AD.
What followed were the "Dark Ages". This was a period when literacy was minimal and historical evidence was ceased. It was precisely the years between 400AD and 550AD - a time for which legends such as King Arthur were planted, planted as a feature of the moribund evidence later generations received (King Arthur is thought to be a medieval myth). In later generations the memory of Rome's occupation across Britain would have its impact most prominently on the development of the English language. Latin phrases became official terminology, alphabets were copied and words acrimoniously pilfered.
The beginnings of what would become the English nation at the hands of the Anglo-Saxon King Alfred many years later were first struck by Roman invaders. Cities famous today had their first foundations, sophistication was brought in the form of Roman customs and greater civilization both in towns or the countryside was burgeoned more than could ever have been imagined. Thus the Romans, who were the dominant European leaders of their epoque, exported their wonders to the British Isles. Many British citizens witnessed their pleasantries. Many today, also, owe our forefathers a spoonful of gratitude.